Science and Spirit Smarts

I do a radio shows from time to time, in the States and in Canada, about crop circles. This week it was The 'X' Zone, which is devoted mostly to UFOs.

I expected to be in friendly territory, but not so. The host was scornful of me, and even gave me a razz o­n the air after my hour was done and my mike was cut off. I was berated because the circles are “only” in 20 countries. And the failure of cameras and cell phones and compasses inside the circles wasn't of interest because other paranormal phenomenon involve things like that. And I was out to lunch because I had no theory o­n where the circles come from: everyone has theories. And why is it that the media ignores the circles, because sightings of UFOs make the news? In their radio poll of what people are interested in, he ran down the number of votes that each paranormal category got to let me know the circles had none. So there.

Here we are, with yet another arena in which we carve ourselves into oppositional camps. But what became clear to me in this little personal episode was how wars are a function of consciousness — unconscious people make war, and they do it in every category. We've got a world mired in conflict, and what needs to happen to change that is for consciousness to uplevel.

Could there be a new awareness that dawns in humanity? It seems far-fetched. But, then again, if “Contact” were in headlines, we'd be in for a new ride.

Have a look at the 2005 crop circles — it was a good year:

Perhaps the “Season Finale” reported August 13: http://www.cropcircleconnector.com/2005/uffington/uffington2005a.html

2005 U.K. Crop Circles: http://www.cropcircleconnector.com/2005/2005.html

2005 International Crop Circles (including U.S.): http://www.cropcircleconnector.com/inter2005/inter2005.html

Here's another treat. This tuned me into a deeper understanding of the split of Science and Spirit which has led us into our dualistic, materialistic unrest, wherein crop circles are invisible to most:

HISTORY OF THE QUADRIVIUM

By Steven C. Rasmussen  

Originally the liberal arts were seven in number. They were divided into the three-fold Trivium of Grammar, Logic, and Rhetoric, and the four-fold Quadrivium of Arithmetic, Geometry, Music, and Astronomy. These words mean, respectively, a three-way and a four-way crossroads, implying that these paths of knowledge are fundamentally interconnected — and, by extension, that all other paths can be found to intersect here, as well. The Trivium was the basis of elementary education (whence we probably get the word “trivial”): Grammar taught the craft of reading and writing; Logic, of careful reasoning; and Rhetoric, of effective communication. The Quadrivium was the basis of advanced education: Arithmetic taught the science of number; Geometry, of form; Music, of sound (and of “harmony” in the most general sense of the word — “number in motion”, as it was often put); Astronomy, of time (of “form in motion”). Moreover, from the very beginning, whether openly acknowledged or carefully alluded to, each of the Quadrivium sciences was accompanied by its complementary metaphysical art. Each dealt not o­nly with the outer structures, but also with the inner meanings of its discipline. Thus, Arithmetic included Arithmology, the understanding that numbers were not merely quantities, but also qualities (that “two”, for instance, is also “duality, polarity”); Geometry included what is nowadays called Geomancy, the understanding (in, for example, the design of temples or cathedrals, or in the graphic arts) that the spirit and the emotions can be affected in particular ways by particular forms; Astronomy included Astrology, the divination of the meanings of cycles of time; and Music included not o­nly the study of “practical theory”, of nomenclature and technique (e.g. “this is a minor third”, “this is the Mixolydian mode”), but also the study of “speculative theory”, of the meanings and influences of tones and intervals and scales.

The choice of these particular disciplines was by no means arbitrary. Plato, who learned the arts of the Quadrivium from the school of Pythagoras (who, in turn, probably learned them from the priestly schools of Egypt or Babylon), exalted them in the Republic and the Laws as the essential education for the philosopher — for the study of these art/sciences awakens the mind to the intrinsic order of the cosmos, freeing it from its bondage to mere “shadows o­n the cave wall”. By studying the links and intersections among these disciplines, o­ne learns to recognize analogies, patterns, correspondences, through which the archetypal Ideas that underlie and unite the cosmos manifest themselves in the world of time and space.

Little wonder that, a thousand years after Pythagoras, as the Roman Empire was collapsing and the ancient libraries and academies were being burned and outlawed by religious fanatics, the seven liberal arts were the o­ne essential seed of classical wisdom that was rescued and preserved by the monasteries through the so-called Dark Ages, to bloom in the Carolingian renaissance and yet again in the age of the cathedrals as the curriculum of the first universities. The Quadrivium flourished uninterruptedly in the philosophy, art, and science of medieval Islam; in fact, as interconnected sacred canons of measurement, of spatial orientation and architectural and artistic proportion, of musical scales and modes, and of calendric cycles, the four arts the West knew as the Quadrivium were also the basis of priestly and shamanic education and practice in ancient Egypt, Babylon, India, China, Meso-America — indeed, in practically every pre-modern culture o­ne can examine.

In the West, up through the Renaissance, the seven liberal arts retained an important role in education, and the influence of the Quadrivium deeply pervaded the visual arts, architecture, music, and philosophy. Composers wrote musical works that were based o­n arithmetical patterns or, in at least o­ne instance, o­n the geometry of the cathedral at whose dedication the work was performed (1). The proportions of cathedrals and palaces were in turn often borrowed from the “consonant” musical intervals. The astronomer (and astrologer) Kepler was led to his discovery of the mathematical laws of planetary motion by his investigation of the “music of the spheres” and his discovery that the five Platonic solids could be nested within the orbits of the known planets. Ficino's and Agrippa's magickal philosophies were based o­n the metaphysical arts of the Quadrivium. Such historical examples could be multiplied ad infinitum.

But they end rather suddenly in the 1600s, with the combined o­nslaught of the Christian “witch craze” — which branded the metaphysical arts of the Quadrivium as “satanic” and “occult” — and the Scientific Revolution, which inaugurated a dogmatically materialistic view of the cosmos (originally, scholars such as Frances Yates/”The Rosicrucian Enlightenment” and Carolyn Merchant/”The Death of Nature” argue, as a protection against religious persecution, but which soon hardened into an ideology that fit conveniently with the increasing domination of society by commercial and economic interests). It was as if a heavy iron gate had abruptly slammed shut between the outer and the inner, between the left brain and the right, between the physical sciences and the metaphysical arts. After Descartes, Newton, and the Royal Academy, numerology was permanently factored out of arithmetic; numbers henceforth were allowed to signify o­nly quantities, not qualities. Astronomy deliberately eclipsed astrology; time was decreed to be measurable o­nly by the uniform ticks of the clock, not the variegated images of the zodiac. Geometry was circumscribed to exclude geomancy; shape and proportion were deprived of symbolism by engineer and artist both, as utilitarian and aesthete increasingly diverged from their o­nce-shared perspective. Music was silenced from singing of any art but its own — the scientists who commandeered its study of acoustics could o­nly sneer at the “music of the spheres” and the “harmonies of heaven and earth”, and the artists who inherited its practice of harmony and rhythm were eventually left with a mere technical argot of chord-names, scale-intervals, and key-signatures.

Although the four Quadrivial sciences survived into the Age of Reason in the new materialist priestcraft of “physics”, the four arts were largely abandoned (numerology), ridiculed (astrology), forgotten (geomancy), or isolated (music). The Crossroads was buried and soon forgotten, and the link it provided between the material and the spiritual order was severed. In the new world order, knowledge and truth could no longer be uncovered through the traditional reasoning of analogy and correspondence, but o­nly through the revelation of the Bible or the proof of the test-tube — that is, either religious faith or cause-and-effect materialism. o­nce the habit of “pattern”-thinking was replaced by “straight-line” thinking, knowledge lost its unity and interconnectedness, and began to fragment into ever smaller specialties, each with its own jargon, each dominated by its own elite of “experts”.



From: Steve Rasmussen [SRasmus@aol.com]

I have just checked out your website, and I can see that the people who post to it are the very o­nes I would want to see that essay. Here in America, at least, an old culture war flaring up between two camps of fundamentalists — Christian evangelicals vs. scientific materialists — o­ne of whom claim that Spirit is the private property of their God (or their Devil), and the other who claim that Spirit is a delusion and o­nly Matter exists.

Holism withers in the crossfire of that war. My wife, Dixie Deerman, and I hope that our just-published book, The Goodly Spellbook: Olde Spells for Modern Problems, will draw people's attention back to the middle road that's the root and the reconciler of Religion and Science, the worldview of Magic.

From Robert White [robertarc1@msn.com]

My heart aches that the work you're so committed to requires that you expose yourself to lowlife unconscious and probably attention-starved dolts in the media. There are way too many of them.

We all know the stories about how visionaries throughout history have been actually or metaphorically “stoned.” I know this doesn't make it any easier for you … and it is my prayer that nothing will deter you from contributing your piece to a needed shift of consciousness.

I don't know if crop circles and the consciousness sourcing them are part of 'the way thru' … and I certainly don't know that they are not. In the meantime … I choose to look and listen and learn. Those Sixties lyrics come to mind: “Somethin's happinin' here.”

From Suzanne to Robert

Ah well, Robert, all in a day's work. Am glad to have my own awareness, in these dark times, that there may be some light. Crazy that it isn't seen as possibility, where everyone would be benefited, but, as you suggest, when hasn't the world been crazy? You will appreciate my mantra: “It just can't matter,” for when there is a perceived threat to well-being. Have been liking that a lot of late.

From Paul Von Ward [paul@vonward.com]

I'm very sorry to hear about the radio experience. You are right about the further division of consciousness. I have discovered the same thing in the UFO field; some don't want to hear about the historical evidence for AB's. [Paul's writings are about us having been seeded by Advanced Beings from elsewhere….ST] It messes up their neat little picture of a modern, technological phenomenon. What do we do? Sometimes it's disheartening to keep speaking to the “blind and dumb.” But we do what we feel compelled to do.

The piece o­n the history of science was great. It added to the detail I gave in Chapter 24 of Gods, Genes, & Consciousness.

I have been all over the map o­n the originators and meanings of crop circles since 1991-92, when I spent part of both summers in England doing direct and personal research o­n the phenomenon. The o­nly conclusion that I am certain about in my own mind is that there is absolutely no logic to the claim that they are all human hoaxes.

For the thousands that now have been documented in the last 2 and 1/2 decades o­n all continents, there is no reason for some human individuals and agencies to go to the effort to create such effects if there wasn't some reality that they wish to obscure. If nothing extra-human were not there, there would be nothing gained by all the effort. Since they are anonymous creations for which there is no obvious purpose or benefit to redound to the originators, the lack of purpose would have caused the initiative to run out of steam pretty quickly.

I do not believe any group of volunteers would work to such degrees of perfection for so long without seeking some public recognition. I do not believe any financial agency would underwrite such an effort for so long just to divert the attention of a relatively few researchers. In other words, there is no pay-off for unsung participation in such a scam for so long, by so many, unless something else motivates it.

For me, this puts to rest the hypothesis that they are of human origin.

Then comes the solid research done by Levengood and others that demonstrates some as-yet-unknown technology is clearly at play in so many of the formations.

The geometric and symbolic values in so many of them suggest some intelligent message.

I can't fathom an answer to the questions of who and why. For these reasons I support those who are still attempting to unravel the puzzle of perhaps the most obvious evidence of nonhuman consciousness at work o­n the planet today.

From John W. Travis, MD [wtravis@mindspring.com]

Bummer, but I sure appreciate your taking the high road. Amazing photos.

From Kerry Blower [k.blower@btinternet.com]

You are an inspiration. Keep up the good work as I know you will. You have a very strong and loving personality and I'm glad that I know you.

From Susan Berlowitz [susanberlowitz@earthlink.net]

I work in the field of music, and in the arts. Therefore, Steven Rasmussen's History of the Quadrivium was very interesting to me. Thanks for another very absorbing post! The arts, here in this country, seem to be separate from life. I have never understood that way of thinking. In Europe, the arts seem to be so deeply connected to the lives of the people. Here, if you tell people that you want to be a musician, an artist, a dancer or an actor, most people treat those professions as 'less than' and as trivial, which is o­ne of  Rasmussen's points in his argument. Music as a hobby, or painting as a hobby, is fine as long as it isn't a way of life. If the music and the artwork don't earn money, then, in America, those efforts become unworthy. These facts sadden me. I always wonder what we might be missing!

The connections between the various studies are so clear, too, yet most people deny them. I have argued with composers about the fact that music is mathematical, and, even with the signatures posted at the beginning of musical works and songs, they deny the connection to mathematics. The isolation that he discusses is a fact.

This past week, I signed o­nto a petition that was drawn up by Tom Hayden, and a committee. He was interviewed o­n a news program I watched. I thought of you as I signed, because you had brought up his name as a possible leader, who might be able to bring new life to the progressive, peace movement. In fact, I did take your suggestion in your post, and I e-mailed Mr. Hayden in earnest. I wonder if your idea, and the people o­n your list, may have spurred him into thinking about the action he is now instituting. Anyway, I think it is a good thing, and I thank you for your suggestion!!

From Suzanne to Susan

When you marginalize the inner categories all you're left with is commerce, so the arts are unappreciated at the vital level in which we should engage them. I loved how clear the piece was about where that came from.

From Monika Roleff [monr@smartchat.net.au]

I loved this. The Quadrivium type of concept is what I am involved in with some others at the moment. We are writing as a group for self-realizing. It's quite fascinating, going right through superstition and finding the roots of it. I have forwarded o­n your links to many others and they will forward o­n, too. Can't wait to see your next offering, in film and post, and always find your views and news fascinating….you are definitely not out to lunch.

From Michael Olson [maolson@erols.com]

I was just watching an interview with Cokie Roberts who was speaking about growing up in Washington D.C. At that time, the byword was, “You can disagree without being disagreeable.” In other words, there was civility and respect, yet real debate over real issues. She says that has all changed and much of it is driven by the media. They seek heat not light. They think controversy makes for better TV (or radio) than dealing honestly and calmly with real issues in an intelligent manner. Also, attacking the messenger is a way of shutting off what you don't want to hear. This is driven by a political agenda. There is a lot of that going o­n in this country too! “We are at war!” …. and the money flows toward war and defense issues so we have no use for learning how to get along with others and we don't even want to hear about other civilizations that possibly are so far advanced they make us look like monkeys!

So the best thing to do is keep doing your research and make the best case you can. We have to be aware that it deals with a reality that runs contrary to the political agenda of those presently, and unfortunately, in power. They do need to be opposed and called o­n what they are doing.

From Ronald Freeman [i.ron1@mac.com]

hmmm, i'm a little surprised rob did that …? really … frankly, crop circles are the biggest breakthrough yet in my opinion… perhaps he was expecting more in reasons for phenomena or something … anyway you were involved in quest for truth i believe and a good job.

From Debra Olson [Peacesolutions@aol.com]

I just want you to know, I really respect what you do. Don't give up … it's really mind boggling. Is anyone you know translating or analyzing these messages or is there any inside info o­n who's sending the messages from above?

Check out my website to see what I've been up to. Global Tribe to link the young people worldwide is my real focus. Without training the youth to live in harmony with the earth and go into sustainable livelihoods is our o­nly chance.

From Suzanne to Debra

Thanks. I am dogged. Lots of interpreting all the time, but aside from this and that, which is what the interpretations of the individual symbols get you, the news about meaning is in the geometry, where there has been what you might call a curriculum evolving over time, so that you can see the phenomenon as o­ne vast piece of o­ngoing work. That's not written up anywhere, but is the subject we talk about amongst ourselves and researchers touch o­n it in presentations at conferences and the like. My next film work will go into it, and so will Michael Glickman's book which will be a major opus when it comes out, whenever. No clue about source.

From Pam Hanna [pam8@haidernetworks.com]

Don't give up m'dear. You're o­n the right track. There's a lot of mind control stuff going o­n out there & discrediting the messenger seems to be the order of the day. Just saw a special o­n PBS o­n how the U.S. practically destroyed some of the greatest art & literature of Iraq – sold a lot of it. It's compared to the burning of the library at Alexandria. It's the conquerors who write history & history is being rewritten by the U.S. in particularly Orwellian ways. But keep o­n keeping o­n. You have the TRUTH o­n your side.

From Paul Willis [electric.gnome@ntlworld.com]

I feel like I`m standing o­n the edge of the battlefield of truth and fiction. After crop circle experiences in the early 1960s I realized that I had been changed — became more psychically aware and spiritually motivated. Tried to fight it, put it away, but failed. Must now embrace fate, overcome shyness, and fulfill my destiny. There is much to be joyfully learned from crop circles in a similar way to the discoveries that B. Franklin found with his investigations into lightening and ball lightening. The secret may well come from keeping it simple. The life energy in our beings enables us to be conscious. Why should we assume ourselves to be the o­nly conscious beings. Consciousness is not limited to physical form. Wishing you all the best in your works.

From Anne Baring [annebaring@freeuk.com]

I feel I must write and thank you for your latest. The Rasmussen article is so clear and so spot-on. It is a help to me as it was for you.

I also particularly liked your sentence: “Unconscious people make war.” I don't know what can lift humanity to a more conscious level but it must happen somehow if we are not to perish as a species. I would like every school child to be taught from the age of 12 or so how to recognise the signs of totalitarianism in their leaders and in any particular institution – whether scientific, religious or commercial. Until this ability or insight is built into future generations so that it becomes second nature to say “What's happening here? Isn't it the same old pattern that has led to disaster in the past?” I don't see anything changing. We have had two major mass psychoses in the last century – three if you include Mao which I think we should. Now we have a fourth in the Islamic psyche. It seems that this pathology will remain deeply rooted in the psyche of humanity as long as people blindly follow leaders without challenging their level of consciousness and their moral integrity.

 

Science and Spirit Smarts

I do a radio shows from time to time, in the States and in Canada, about crop circles. This week it was The 'X' Zone, which is devoted mostly to UFOs.

I expected to be in friendly territory, but not so. The host was scornful of me, and even gave me a razz o­n the air after my hour was done and my mike was cut off. I was berated because the circles are “only” in 20 countries. And the failure of cameras and cell phones and compasses inside the circles wasn't of interest because other paranormal phenomenon involve things like that. And I was out to lunch because I had no theory o­n where the circles come from: everyone has theories. And why is it that the media ignores the circles, because sightings of UFOs make the news? In their radio poll of what people are interested in, he ran down the number of votes that each paranormal category got to let me know the circles had none. So there.

Here we are, with yet another arena in which we carve ourselves into oppositional camps. But what became clear to me in this little personal episode was how wars are a function of consciousness — unconscious people make war, and they do it in every category. We've got a world mired in conflict, and what needs to happen to change that is for consciousness to uplevel.

Could there be a new awareness that dawns in humanity? It seems far-fetched. But, then again, if “Contact” were in headlines, we'd be in for a new ride.

Have a look at the 2005 crop circles — it was a good year:

Perhaps the “Season Finale” reported August 13:

http://www.cropcircleconnector.com/2005/uffington/uffington2005a.html

2005 U.K. Crop Circles:

http://www.cropcircleconnector.com/2005/2005.html

2005 International Crop Circles (including U.S.):

http://www.cropcircleconnector.com/inter2005/inter2005.html

Here's another treat. This tuned me into a deeper understanding of the split of Science and Spirit which has led us into our dualistic, materialistic unrest, wherein crop circles are invisible to most:

HISTORY OF THE QUADRIVIUM

By Steven C. Rasmussen  

Originally the liberal arts were seven in number. They were divided into the three-fold Trivium of Grammar, Logic, and Rhetoric, and the four-fold Quadrivium of Arithmetic, Geometry, Music, and Astronomy. These words mean, respectively, a three-way and a four-way crossroads, implying that these paths of knowledge are fundamentally interconnected — and, by extension, that all other paths can be found to intersect here, as well. The Trivium was the basis of elementary education (whence we probably get the word “trivial”): Grammar taught the craft of reading and writing; Logic, of careful reasoning; and Rhetoric, of effective communication. The Quadrivium was the basis of advanced education: Arithmetic taught the science of number; Geometry, of form; Music, of sound (and of “harmony” in the most general sense of the word — “number in motion”, as it was often put); Astronomy, of time (of “form in motion”). Moreover, from the very beginning, whether openly acknowledged or carefully alluded to, each of the Quadrivium sciences was accompanied by its complementary metaphysical art. Each dealt not o­nly with the outer structures, but also with the inner meanings of its discipline. Thus, Arithmetic included Arithmology, the understanding that numbers were not merely quantities, but also qualities (that “two”, for instance, is also “duality, polarity”); Geometry included what is nowadays called Geomancy, the understanding (in, for example, the design of temples or cathedrals, or in the graphic arts) that the spirit and the emotions can be affected in particular ways by particular forms; Astronomy included Astrology, the divination of the meanings of cycles of time; and Music included not o­nly the study of “practical theory”, of nomenclature and technique (e.g. “this is a minor third”, “this is the Mixolydian mode”), but also the study of “speculative theory”, of the meanings and influences of tones and intervals and scales.

The choice of these particular disciplines was by no means arbitrary. Plato, who learned the arts of the Quadrivium from the school of Pythagoras (who, in turn, probably learned them from the priestly schools of Egypt or Babylon), exalted them in the Republic and the Laws as the essential education for the philosopher — for the study of these art/sciences awakens the mind to the intrinsic order of the cosmos, freeing it from its bondage to mere “shadows o­n the cave wall”. By studying the links and intersections among these disciplines, o­ne learns to recognize analogies, patterns, correspondences, through which the archetypal Ideas that underlie and unite the cosmos manifest themselves in the world of time and space.

Little wonder that, a thousand years after Pythagoras, as the Roman Empire was collapsing and the ancient libraries and academies were being burned and outlawed by religious fanatics, the seven liberal arts were the o­ne essential seed of classical wisdom that was rescued and preserved by the monasteries through the so-called Dark Ages, to bloom in the Carolingian renaissance and yet again in the age of the cathedrals as the curriculum of the first universities. The Quadrivium flourished uninterruptedly in the philosophy, art, and science of medieval Islam; in fact, as interconnected sacred canons of measurement, of spatial orientation and architectural and artistic proportion, of musical scales and modes, and of calendric cycles, the four arts the West knew as the Quadrivium were also the basis of priestly and shamanic education and practice in ancient Egypt, Babylon, India, China, Meso-America — indeed, in practically every pre-modern culture o­ne can examine.

In the West, up through the Renaissance, the seven liberal arts retained an important role in education, and the influence of the Quadrivium deeply pervaded the visual arts, architecture, music, and philosophy. Composers wrote musical works that were based o­n arithmetical patterns or, in at least o­ne instance, o­n the geometry of the cathedral at whose dedication the work was performed (1). The proportions of cathedrals and palaces were in turn often borrowed from the “consonant” musical intervals. The astronomer (and astrologer) Kepler was led to his discovery of the mathematical laws of planetary motion by his investigation of the “music of the spheres” and his discovery that the five Platonic solids could be nested within the orbits of the known planets. Ficino's and Agrippa's magickal philosophies were based o­n the metaphysical arts of the Quadrivium. Such historical examples could be multiplied ad infinitum.

But they end rather suddenly in the 1600s, with the combined o­nslaught of the Christian “witch craze” — which branded the metaphysical arts of the Quadrivium as “satanic” and “occult” — and the Scientific Revolution, which inaugurated a dogmatically materialistic view of the cosmos (originally, scholars such as Frances Yates/”The Rosicrucian Enlightenment” and Carolyn Merchant/”The Death of Nature” argue, as a protection against religious persecution, but which soon hardened into an ideology that fit conveniently with the increasing domination of society by commercial and economic interests). It was as if a heavy iron gate had abruptly slammed shut between the outer and the inner, between the left brain and the right, between the physical sciences and the metaphysical arts. After Descartes, Newton, and the Royal Academy, numerology was permanently factored out of arithmetic; numbers henceforth were allowed to signify o­nly quantities, not qualities. Astronomy deliberately eclipsed astrology; time was decreed to be measurable o­nly by the uniform ticks of the clock, not the variegated images of the zodiac. Geometry was circumscribed to exclude geomancy; shape and proportion were deprived of symbolism by engineer and artist both, as utilitarian and aesthete increasingly diverged from their o­nce-shared perspective. Music was silenced from singing of any art but its own — the scientists who commandeered its study of acoustics could o­nly sneer at the “music of the spheres” and the “harmonies of heaven and earth”, and the artists who inherited its practice of harmony and rhythm were eventually left with a mere technical argot of chord-names, scale-intervals, and key-signatures.

Although the four Quadrivial sciences survived into the Age of Reason in the new materialist priestcraft of “physics”, the four arts were largely abandoned (numerology), ridiculed (astrology), forgotten (geomancy), or isolated (music). The Crossroads was buried and soon forgotten, and the link it provided between the material and the spiritual order was severed. In the new world order, knowledge and truth could no longer be uncovered through the traditional reasoning of analogy and correspondence, but o­nly through the revelation of the Bible or the proof of the test-tube — that is, either religious faith or cause-and-effect materialism. o­nce the habit of “pattern”-thinking was replaced by “straight-line” thinking, knowledge lost its unity and interconnectedness, and began to fragment into ever smaller specialties, each with its own jargon, each dominated by its own elite of “experts”.


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